Chronic bronchitis is where you have long term symptoms of bronchitis, and is defined as a daily productive cough that lasts for three months of the year, for at least two years in a row. Bronchitis is an infection or inflammation of the bronchi, which are the largest airways of the lungs. These airways have a protective mechanism built into them where they produce mucus, which traps anything that is not welcome in the airways and could be harmful to the lungs. It can then be coughed up and removed from the body. When someone has bronchitis, something has irritated the airways, causing increased production of mucus. This leads to the body trying to get rid of the mucus, and causes a productive cough. It may start as an on-and-off acute bronchitis and lead to chronic bronchitis.

When we experience pain, we seek any means to relieve it. That’s how we evolved and survived as animals. Although cavemen didn’t have pharmacies to get their paracetamol from. So when wandering around the pharmacy and faced with a multitude of choices, how do we know what’s going to hit the spot? And what if we’ve exhausted what the pharmacy offers and we still haven’t cracked it, what more can your doctor offer? Let’s talk you through painkillers available to buy at the pharmacist, and the so-called ladder of pain relief, which may require your doctor to prescribe stronger medications as you climb upwards. By knowing the different classes of painkillers, you can also combine them if you need to. It’s also good to be aware of side effects, and if these are unbearable, there may be other medications such as ones to treat nausea with opioid medications, that help you feel more comfortable. The following relates to tablets or oral medications: we discuss gels, creams, patches and other modes of pain relief in other articles. You may also need medications to reduce risks if you’re taking medications for a long time, such as protecting against excess stomach acid caused by non-steroidal anti-inflammatories. Or switching to a cream or gel to avoid certain problems or risks. Let’s start with the science behind the main classes of pain relievers, or analgesics, as we call them.

Constipation can happen in all ages but is particularly common in children. Here are some of the common questions parents often ask me in my work as a Paediatrician.

Chicken skin, also known as keratosis pilaris, is a very common skin condition, where the skin gets bumpy and red, resembling chicken skin or goosebumps. It typically occurs on the upper outer arms and thighs, where hair follicles get blocked with pockets of keratin, a thick tough substance that helps to protect the skin. Bumps are usually red, brown or flesh-coloured, and the skin will feel rough, dry and sometimes itchy. This condition affects up to half of the population, running in families and appearing most prominently in adolescence, with improvement usually in adulthood. It is completely harmless, but people become concerned with its appearance.

All women aged between 25 and 64 are invited for cervical screening in the UK. Also called a smear test or pap test, it’s a test aiming to prevent cancer rather than a test for whether you have cancer. It checks for a certain virus that can disrupt the cells of the cervix (the opening to your womb from your vagina). If you have the virus, the cells of the cervix can then be checked for any changes that could, with time, lead to cervical cancer. Your local health authority will get your age and address details from your GP records and send you an invitation (usually by post). If you’re under 25, you’ll be invited every 6 months until you are 25, every 3 years if you’re 25 to 49 and every 5 years if you’re aged 50 to 64. After the age of 65 you’ll only be invited if one of your last three tests was abnormal. You then book an appointment with your general practice nurse or sexual health clinic for a test. Cervical cancer is not one of the most common cancers, but it is common in young women, usually affecting those in their early 30s. Once you have cervical cancer, treatment can be difficult and threaten your fertility and your overall health. But it's considered 99.8% preventable, so it's worth keeping up with your cervical screening.

Many patients are experiencing frustration and irritation at being unable to access GP appointments as they did before the pandemic. Some complain that they would like to see a doctor face to face and they are only offered phone appointments, others that they can’t get through to the reception staff or that all the appointments are booked that day by the time they’ve got through. There has been an unprecedented demand on healthcare since the pandemic, and a shortage of doctors and other health professionals that pre-date the pandemic. They are doing their best to serve the public in challenging times, but that might feel like cold comfort when you feel your problem needs attention. So what are your options? Let’s talk you through where to go and when.

There is no clear evidence that having a glass or two of alcohol after your vaccine has a negative effect on how well your vaccine works, or makes you feel any worse.

Burns can happen in a second, and it’s important to act fast to prevent further injury and reduce the risk of scarring. Minor burns and scalds are fairly common, with hot water from pans, kettles or the bath as top of the list, and fireworks when celebrations come around. Burns typically affect the hands, forearms and face, or the lower legs or bottom when young children get in a very hot bath. Sunburn also counts as a burn. Take burns seriously, even if there isn’t much to see initially – it can take some time for the skin to react and deep pain to set in, but the skin has been traumatised, and the process of injury continues unless it is cooled and treated. What different types of burn are there? Burns are classified according to the depth and extent of the skin damage, and their treatment depends on how severe they are. There are three main types; First-degree (superficial) burns - the skin is red, painful and very sensitive to touch. The damaged skin may be slightly moist from fluid leaking from the deeper layers, and sunburn is a good example of such a burn. Second-degree (partial thickness) burns. Here, the damage is more serious, and blisters usually appear on the skin, which is still painful and sensitive. Third-degree (full-thickness) burns. The most severe type of burn, in which the tissues in all layers of the skin are dead, so there are typically no blisters on the skin. The burned surface can appear white, black (charred), or bright red from blood at the bottom of the wound. Because the skin nerves are damaged, these burns can be surprisingly painless and lack sensation when touched. Specialist treatment with skin grafts are often required for severely damaged areas, and these types of burns are often life-threatening if enough of the body is burnt.

Back symptoms such as pain and reduced movement are common and are often due to problems with the discs that sit between each of our backbones. These can sometimes bulge a little to cause symptoms and, at other times, cause problems if they herniate (often called a ‘slipped disc’). In this article, we look at whether it is possible to tell the difference between them, what tests are sometimes needed to make an accurate diagnosis, what symptoms they cause, and how they are usually treated.

Prolapsed or ‘slipped’ discs in the back are a common cause of pain, and may occasionally cause more serious health problems such as nerve damage and bowel or bladder difficulties. You may wonder just how easy it is to know if you have a slipped disc, and whether it is possible to feel one with your hand if it happens. In this article we look at if this is something that can be done, and the correct way to have a possible slipped disc investigated. First, let’s remind ourselves about the anatomy of our spine (our backbone).

Every woman in the UK is entitled to breast cancer screening. This starts from the age of 50, and continues up to your 71st birthday. You’ll be invited every three years by the local health authority, and they'll use your age and contact details from your doctor's records. Breast cancer is the most common cancer in the UK, and every 1 in 8 women is diagnosed in their lifetime. The risk grows with age, hence the screening starting at 50. It can occur in men, as they have breast tissue too, but it’s much more rare, so they are not included in the screening programme.

Everyone aged between 60 and 74 is invited automatically for bowel cancer screening. The local health authority will use your age and contact details in the GP records to send you a home test kit, which you send back to check for abnormalities. You’re then sent this kit every 2 years if you live in England. Bowel cancer is the third most common cancer in the UK. Early detection gives a good chance for treatment to work, and to help prevent the cancer spreading not only through the bowel but also to other parts of the body, which carries a risk of death. The chance of bowel increases as we get older, and the government is rolling out plans to start screening from 50 years old.