Cystitis means inflammation of the bladder and is usually caused by a bacterial infection. Cystitis is often used interchangeably with the term urinary tract infection (UTI), although technically cystitis is a subtype of the umbrella term UTI, which also includes infections in other parts of the kidney-bladder-urethra system to pass urine. Common complaints are pain or burning on passing urine, needing to go more often and yet little may be passed, and racing to the loo with great urgency to pass urine. Less common symptoms include stomach pain, blood in the urine or smelly urine. Cystitis is usually caused by certain bacteria, many of which occur naturally on your skin and in your gut. Owing to the close proximity of your waterworks to the bowel system, bacteria that are usually harmless in the poo or on your skin can contaminate the urinary system and cause a bladder infection.

Collagen is a protein that is very important for your body. It helps keep your skin, hair, nails, muscles, and joints strong and flexible. As you get older, your body makes less collagen, which can lead to wrinkles, thinner hair, and joint pain. Many people use collagen supplements and beauty products, hoping to look younger and feel better. This article explains what collagen is, how it works, the different types, and whether supplements really help. It also shares natural ways to boost your body’s collagen and clears up common myths.

All women aged between 25 and 64 are invited for cervical screening in the UK. Also called a smear test or pap test, it’s a test aiming to prevent cancer rather than a test for whether you have cancer. It checks for a certain virus that can disrupt the cells of the cervix (the opening to your womb from your vagina). If you have the virus, the cells of the cervix can then be checked for any changes that could, with time, lead to cervical cancer. Your local health authority will get your age and address details from your GP records and send you an invitation (usually by post). If you’re under 25, you’ll be invited every 6 months until you are 25, every 3 years if you’re 25 to 49 and every 5 years if you’re aged 50 to 64. After the age of 65 you’ll only be invited if one of your last three tests was abnormal. You then book an appointment with your general practice nurse or sexual health clinic for a test. Cervical cancer is not one of the most common cancers, but it is common in young women, usually affecting those in their early 30s. Once you have cervical cancer, treatment can be difficult and threaten your fertility and your overall health. But it's considered 99.8% preventable, so it's worth keeping up with your cervical screening.

Breast cancer is the most common form of cancer in the UK and every year 55,000 women are diagnosed with it. Currently the process involved screening and then only once, diagnosed they are treated. Unfortunately, around 11,500 will die from the disease every year and the vast majority of cases of breast cancer are diagnosed after the age of 50. One of the most common treatments used in breast cancer is called anastrozole – a hormone that is given as a daily tablet. This is because some breast cancers need the hormone oestrogen to grow, and an enzyme called 'aromatase' is needed for this change to occur. Anastrozole works by blocking (inhibiting) this enzyme, which in turn reduces the amount of oestrogen in your body, which slows the growth of breast cancer cells. Under new plans just announced by the NHS, up to 300,000 women who are said to be at moderate or high risk of developing breast cancer will now be offered anastrozole as a preventive treatment in order to reduce their risk of breast cancer occurring in the first place. It has been estimated that if this roll-out is taken up in full, it could prevent 8,000 cases of breast cancer among women currently in their 50s and 60s if taken for a full 5-year course. Anastrozole has been licensed for the treatment of breast cancer since 2006, but until now has not been licensed as a preventive treatment. Who is eligible for anastrozole for the prevention of breast cancer? Any post-menopausal woman with a mother or sister diagnosed with the disease before the age of 40, or those with two close relatives with breast cancer at any age, are encouraged to come forward to their doctor for assessment. If suitable, their GP is able to prescribe anastrozole. Women have a one in seven chance of developing breast cancer but are said to be at moderate risk if this increases to around one in six. Women are said to be at high risk if this increases further to at least one in three.

Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) is a treatment that helps women manage menopause symptoms, like hot flashes, mood swings, and bone health issues. HRT can improve life during menopause, but it may slightly raise the risk of breast cancer. Knowing how HRT affects breast cancer risk helps women make smart choices for their health. What is HRT? HRT replaces oestrogen, a hormone that drops during menopause. This drop can cause symptoms like night sweats and mood changes. HRT helps balance hormones and relieves these symptoms. Types of HRT: Oestrogen-only HRT: Usually for women who have had their womb removed. Using it with an intact womb can raise the risk of womb cancer. Combined HRT: Has both oestrogen and progestogen. For women with a womb, it lowers womb cancer risk but may slightly raise breast cancer risk more than oestrogen-only HRT. Localised HRT: Creams, rings, or pessaries used in the vagina for dryness. It does not affect the whole body. HRT and Breast Cancer Risk Some studies show that combined HRT can slightly increase breast cancer risk, especially if used for a long time. Risk factors include: Type of HRT: Combined HRT has a higher risk; localised HRT does not. Duration: Using HRT for longer periods, especially combined HRT, can increase the risk. Regular check-ins with your doctor are recommended. Personal/family history: If you or your family have had breast cancer, the risk may be higher. Most research indicates that the risk returns to normal within five years of stopping HRT. Many women still find that HRT improves their quality of life. Factors That Affect Breast Cancer Risk Age: Starting HRT closer to menopause is associated with lower risks. Starting later can increase risk. Family history: Women with a family history of breast cancer should talk to their doctor. Lifestyle: Smoking, alcohol, and being overweight raise breast cancer risk. Healthy habits help lower risk. Duration of use: Short-term use (under five years) has less impact; more prolonged use may increase risk.

What Is Menopausal Joint Pain? Menopause is a natural part of the ageing process. While most people associate it with hot flushes and mood swings, joint pain is also common. Sometimes referred to as "menopausal arthritis," this condition can cause pain in the knees, hips, neck, hands, and shoulders, making daily activities more challenging and reducing overall quality of life.

Menopause is a natural stage in a woman's life, typically occurring between the ages of 45 and 55. It marks the end of menstrual periods and brings about hormonal changes. Common symptoms include hot flashes, night sweats, mood swings, and trouble sleeping. These can make daily life harder. In the UK, doctors often recommend hormone replacement therapy (HRT) for menopause. Some women also use supplements to help with mild symptoms. This guide explains vitamins, minerals, and herbal supplements that may help, based on NHS and NICE guidance. Key Vitamins and Minerals for Menopause Vitamin D Helps the body absorb calcium and maintain strong bones. The NHS recommends 10 micrograms (mcg) per day, especially in autumn and winter. Calcium Supports bone health, which is especially important after menopause. Women over 50 should aim for approximately 1,200 mg of calcium daily through food or supplements. Vitamin B6 and B12 Help with energy and mood. Found in eggs, meat, dairy, and leafy greens. Magnesium Supports sleep, reduces muscle cramps, and may help with mild anxiety. Sources include nuts, seeds, and leafy greens. Supplements may help with joint pain or hot flashes. Herbal Supplements and Plant-Based Options Phytoestrogens Plant compounds that act a little like oestrogen. Found in soybeans, flaxseeds, chickpeas, soy isoflavones, and red clover. Some women find them helpful for hot flashes, but the evidence is mixed. Black Cohosh Used for hot flashes and mood swings. Research is limited, and it may not be safe for women with liver problems. Always consult a doctor before using. Supplements for Bone and Heart Health Omega-3 Fatty Acids Found in fish oil or flaxseed supplements. Good for heart health, though they do not directly reduce menopause symptoms. Collagen May support skin, joints, and bone strength. Research is ongoing, and effectiveness varies. Vitamin K2 Helps the body use calcium properly for strong bones. Often taken with calcium and vitamin D. Are Menopause Supplements Safe? Supplements can fill gaps in your diet, but should not replace a balanced diet. Herbal supplements, such as black cohosh or red clover, can interact with other medications. Excessive intake of calcium or vitamin D can be harmful. Always consult a healthcare professional before starting any new supplements. Lifestyle Tips to Help With Menopause Exercise, such as walking, jogging, or resistance training, helps strengthen bones, improve heart health, and boost mood. Eat Well: Focus on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins. Sleep: Maintain a regular schedule and bedtime routine. Manage Stress: Yoga, meditation, or mindfulness can help alleviate mood and anxiety issues. When to See a Doctor Symptoms that are severe or don't improve with supplements and lifestyle changes. Persistent hot flashes, night sweats, or mood swings that significantly affect daily life. Sudden changes in health, such as bone pain or heart issues, may indicate a serious underlying condition. Doctors may recommend HRT or other treatments for symptom relief. Supplements are most effective when used in conjunction with a balanced diet, regular exercise, adequate sleep, and professional medical guidance. References (UWE Harvard Style) NHS. (2023) Menopause. Available at: (Accessed: 22 September 2025). NICE. (2023) Menopause: Diagnosis and management. Available at: (Accessed: 22 September 2025). British Nutrition Foundation. (2022) Nutrition and menopause. Available at: (Accessed: 22 September 2025). National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2023) Herbal remedies and menopause. Available at: (Accessed: 22 September 2025). Women's Health Concern. (2022) Supplements in menopause. Available at: (Accessed: 22 September 2025).

Mental health is just as important as physical health, especially during adolescence: a time of rapid growth and change. Teenagers face unique challenges, including hormonal shifts, social pressures, school stress, and identity development. While feeling stressed or anxious occasionally is normal, ongoing mental health struggles can affect daily life, relationships, and school performance. Understanding teenage mental health helps parents, caregivers, and teens themselves identify problems early and access support. This article covers common mental health issues, their causes, signs to watch for, and strategies to help teens maintain emotional well-being. What is Teenage Mental Health? Teenage mental health refers to a teen's emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects how they think, feel, and interact with others. During adolescence, the brain undergoes significant development, particularly in areas related to decision-making, impulse control, and emotional regulation. Common mental health issues include: Anxiety Depression Body image concerns Low self-esteem Persistent or severe mental health problems can affect confidence, academic performance, and relationships. Recognising the signs early is key to practical support and intervention.

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are among the most common bacterial infections, particularly in women: nearly half will experience one in their lifetime. Symptoms like burning during urination, abdominal pain, and fever can significantly impact daily life. Due to their frequency and risk of recurrence, UTIs are a notable health concern for women of all ages. Understanding how UTIs develop, recognising the symptoms, and knowing the treatment options are key to effective prevention and management. Women are more susceptible due to anatomical and hormonal factors. If untreated, UTIs can lead to complications like recurrent infections or kidney damage, making early diagnosis and proper care essential. This article covers what UTIs are, why women are at higher risk, types of UTIs, symptoms, causes, and treatment, including more accessible initiatives like Pharmacy First consultations and prevention strategies. We’ll also outline when to seek medical attention to avoid complications and ensure proper treatment.

Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) are a common concern during pregnancy, affecting up to 10% of expectant mothers. These infections occur when bacteria from the digestive tract enter the urinary system, leading to discomfort and potential complications if left untreated. Understanding UTIs during pregnancy is crucial for safeguarding the health of both the mother and the developing baby. Pregnant women are more vulnerable to UTIs due to several changes that occur in their bodies. Recognising the symptoms early and seeking prompt treatment can prevent complications such as kidney infections and preterm labour. This article offers a comprehensive overview of UTIs during pregnancy, including causes, symptoms, increased risk factors, treatment options, and prevention. It also emphasises when to seek medical help to protect both mother and baby. What is a UTI? An Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) is an infection that occurs in any part of the urinary system, including the urethra, bladder, and kidneys. Most UTIs are caused by bacteria, particularly Escherichia coli (E. coli), which typically reside in the digestive tract. When these bacteria enter the urinary tract, they can multiply and lead to infection. UTIs can cause symptoms ranging from mild discomfort to severe pain, depending on the location and severity of the infection. Pregnant women are particularly susceptible to UTIs due to the changes their bodies undergo. Hormonal shifts significantly increase progesterone levels and relax the urinary tract muscles, slowing the urine flow and making it easier for bacteria to thrive. Additionally, the growing uterus can exert pressure on the bladder, further complicating urine flow and increasing the risk of infection.

Menopause is a significant transition in a woman's life, often accompanied by various physical changes. The increased incidence of joint pain and osteoarthritis is among the concerns. Women are more likely to develop osteoarthritis after menopause. Approximately 6 in 10 of postmenopausal women show radiographic evidence of osteoarthritis. Understanding the connection between menopause and osteoarthritis is crucial for women experiencing these symptoms and looking for effective management strategies.

Discover how to determine your skin type and develop the ideal skincare routine for healthy, radiant skin. Get tips for oily, dry, combination, normal, and sensitive skin. Why Knowing Your Skin Type Matters Knowing your skin type is the first step to having healthy skin. Many people use products that aren't right for them, which can cause breakouts, irritation, or dryness. When you understand your skin type, you can choose the right products that keep your skin balanced and healthy. There are five main skin types: normal, oily, dry, combination, and sensitive. Each type needs different care. Using the wrong products can make skin problems worse. In this article, we'll help you figure out your skin type and share tips to keep your skin looking great. The Five Skin Types Here's how to identify which skin type you have: 1. Normal Skin Normal skin has a good balance of oil and moisture with few problems. The pores aren't too big, and the skin feels smooth. People with normal skin typically don't experience excessive oiliness or dryness, allowing them to follow a simple skincare routine. 2. Oily Skin Oily skin produces more oil than needed. This can cause your face to appear shiny, with larger pores, and you may experience more blackheads or pimples. Oily skin requires products that control oil without over-drying the skin. 3. Dry Skin Dry skin lacks sufficient moisture. It can feel tight or flaky, especially after washing. You might notice rough patches or redness. People with dry skin need products rich in moisture, such as creams and oils. 4. Combination Skin Combination skin has both oily and dry areas. Typically, the T-zone (forehead, nose, and chin) is oily, while the cheeks tend to be drier. You need to balance these areas with products that add moisture to dry spots without clogging pores in oily areas. 5. Sensitive Skin Sensitive skin gets irritated easily. It may turn red quickly due to skincare products, harsh weather, or certain foods. If you have sensitive skin, look for gentle products that are free from added scents. Simple Test: To help figure out your skin type, wash your face with a mild soap, wait an hour without putting anything on your skin, and see how it feels. Common Skin Myths Here are some wrong ideas about skin that many people believe: Myth: "I have dry skin because I get breakouts." Many people think only oily skin gets pimples, but dry skin can break out too. When skin is too dry, it may produce extra oil to compensate, which can clog pores. Use a gentle cleanser and don't skip moisturiser. Myth: "Oily skin doesn't need moisturiser." Skipping moisturiser can actually make oily skin worse. When your skin feels dry, it makes even more oil. Choose light, oil-free moisturisers that won't clog your pores. Myth: "Combination skin needs different products for each area." While it may seem that you should use different products for dry and oily areas, most people with combination skin can use the same products everywhere. Look for products made for combination skin that control oil in the T-zone while adding moisture to dry areas.